![]() ![]() Combining traditional conservation with active restoration (i.e. Therefore, conservation that only focuses on removing, lessening, or ameliorating environmental stressors may not be effective in stopping or reversing trajectories of change ( McCrackin et al., 2017 Lindegren et al., 2018). Even after the causes of degradation are removed, recovery can still take decades or even centuries ( Dobson et al., 1997 Lotze et al., 2011) and sometimes does not occur at all ( Cox et al., 2017). It is difficult for some degraded ecosystems to naturally return to historic states within a reasonable time scale ( Lotze et al., 2011). Hence, interventions aimed to halt biodiversity loss and restore degraded ecosystems are essential ( Duarte et al., 2020). These stressors are altering the structure and function of ecosystems, and are reducing global and local biodiversity ( Vörösmarty et al., 2010 Halpern et al., 2019). Ongoing climate change is affecting marine ecosystems through warming ocean temperatures, rising sea levels, ocean acidification, increasing ocean stratification and decreasing sea ice cover ( IPCC, 2022). Our results show the potential for green gravel to be a vector of dispersal for restoration in Western Australia where natural recovery of kelp forests has failed. Substrata had a significant effect on density of detached gametophytes with rougher and larger gravel showing higher densities of detachment. Gametophytes were also found to not only survive on the gravel itself but also detach from the gravel, settle successfully, fertilise and develop into healthy sporophytes ex situ on the surrounding substratum through lateral transfer. ![]() After 12 months in aquarium tanks, sporophytes on both small and large basalt gravel were significantly larger than those on the crushed laterite. length) at the time of transferring into aquarium tanks (after three months of rearing in incubators) but over time substrata showed a significant effect on maximum lengths. Substrata and seeding density did not affect sporophyte growth (i.e. Gametophytes that adhered to the three other test substrata were healthy, fertilised following seeding and microscopic sporophytes were observed attaching to the gravel. ![]() Gametophytes successfully adhered to all four tested substrata, however, gametophytes that adhered to the limestone gravel (the natural reef type off Western Australia) suffered extreme tissue bleaching likely due to dissolution and decrease in seawater pH. The tested substrata were small basalt, large basalt, crushed laterite and limestone. radiata gametophytes at two average seeding densities: high density of ~230 fragments mL -1 and low density of ~115 fragments mL -1. gravel), that had different surface texture and size, with E. Here, we tested the feasibility of cultivating Australia’s dominant kelp, Ecklonia radiata on green gravel with the aim of optimising the seeding conditions for E.radiata. small gravel) are seeded with kelp propagules, reared in controlled conditions in the laboratory before out-planting to degraded reefs. A new restoration approach termed “green gravel” has shown promise as a tool to combat kelp forest loss. Kelp forests are experiencing substantial declines due to climate change, particularly ocean warming and marine heatwaves, and active interventions are necessary to halt this decline. 6Department of Science and Environment, Roskilde University, Roskilde, Denmark.5Department of Primary Industries, National Marine Science Centre, Coffs Harbour, NSW, Australia. ![]() 4National Marine Science Centre, Southern Cross University, Coffs Harbour, NSW, Australia.3Institute of Marine Research, His, Norway.2Department of Biology, Unaizah College of Sciences and Arts, Qassim University, Unaizah, Saudi Arabia.1University of Western Australia (UWA) Oceans Institute and School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Crawley, WA, Australia.Alsuwaiyan 1,2*, Karen Filbee-Dexter 1,3, Sofie Vranken 1, Celina Burkholz 1, Marion Cambridge 1, Melinda A. ![]()
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